Geological Field Report of Khewra Gorge, Nammal Gorge an Hazara region of Pakistan

 Geological field report

By: Falak Sher Buzdar 

Contacts: falaksher2011@gmail.com       Cell # 03238670729

                          Dedication

T

he geological field report is dedicated to our Prophet Muhammad (S.A.W) our parents and our respected teachers who try their best to give us the knowledge and my friends who help me to complete this report. 

                     

                      Acknowledgement

T

his Geological Field Report is prepared during my summer vocation after the field trip arranged by the Department of Earth Sciences University of Sargodha. After the field I start working to prepare the field report. I get help from my teachers and friends. I am very thankful to all of them. But I want to say special thanks to my respected teacher

Who try their best to convey all his knowledge to me and my classfellow and taught us all the necessary things which will help us in our practical life and I am also very thankful to

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Who give us their precious knowledge about the field geology and taught us the field geology with love and affection.

                  

                        CONTENTS

S.NO.	CHAPTER NAME	PAGE NO.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8	Main objective About the tour Regional geologic setting Rocks units(Stratigraphy) Structures observed in field importance of Geology in daily life Photo gallery Maps		5 6 8 11 25 28 32 52

Chapter

Main objectives

   

T

he field report follows a conventional pattern along with a practical approach. The language throughout the report is simple but accurate, style lucid illustration instructive, sequence of topics and comprehensive. The aim to the field report is to guide the student for the coming examination where the students have to write thesis and this report will help us for the next time. The main objectives of the field work are given below

1: the first and the main objective of the field work was to strong our grip on the Stratigraphy of Pakistan especially on the Stratigraphy of the Salt Range area and Hazara area.

2: the second objective was to study different fossils in the rocks and the subject related to Geology is Paleontology in which we study about fossils.

3: another objective was to enjoy the students and awareness about these beautiful areas of Pakistan.  

 

Chapter

                                

                   About the tour

D

epartment Of Earth Sciences University Of Sargodha arranged a field tour for B.s Geology student of 4^th semester. It was a five days field tour. The first day field tour was arranged 30 March 2013 to Khewra Gorge and the 2^nd day field tour was arranged just two week after on 13 April 2013 to Nammal Gorge. In these two days field tour we studied about the Salt Range area. We studied different fossil in rocks and the main objective was to study the Stratigraphy of the area. On first day we visited to Khewra Gorge, here we studied about Salt Range formation and some other different formations. In Khewra Gorge there is a stream passing through it and the water of the area is salty in taste. We went through university bus, it was one day field and we enjoy the tour very much. We come back to our hostel at night at 10pm. The first day field was very difficult because the weather of the area is very hot. After the one day field we write a small field report about the Salt Range and submit it to Sir Abdullah Naeem

Due to hot weather the 2^nd day field tour was arranged on April 13 2013 to Nammal Gorge. The climate of Nammal Gorge situated at western Salt Range was pleasant as compared to Khewra Gorge.

The remaining 3 days field work was arranged after the final term examination. We started our journey towards Abbotabad on June 21 2013 and reached Abbotabad at evening and stayed in the Lala Zar hotel there. We take a rest at night and on the next day we start journey toward Havelian and do field work along Lora Maqsood road, here we studied different sedimentary structure and Sratigraphic sequence.

On 4^th day we field along Murree road and reached Nathiagali and observed different type of metamorphic rocks.

The last and 5^th day we field along Tendiani at Mansehra and observed different rocks of Paleocene age, and at evening we start our back journey towards Sargodha. The journey was pleasant and smooth and we enjoy it.

Chapter

Regional geologic setting

T

he study of physical features of earth and of human activities as it relates to these is known as Geography. In geography we will through light on the physical features like climate changes, crops of the areas etc.

    GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF SALT RANGE AREA

The geographic features of Salt Range area are

Climate:

The climate of Salt Range area is moderately hot as compared to other areas. This is because of the Sakessar Peak.

Highest Peak:

 The highest peak of the Salt Range area is the Sakessar peak.

Cultivation:

 The Salt Range area is suitable for cultivation and many types of crops are cultivated in this area in both summer and winter and it comprises both legumes and non legumes.

Rainfall:

The Salt Range area receives 70-80mm average rainfall per year. In rain season (Monsoon) the area receive maximum rainfall in July and August and receive little rainfall in month of January, February April and December.

Soils:

Two type of soil is present in the salt range i.e.

Soil at hill tops Soil in depressions. Soil at the hill top is formed due to insitu weathering and provides leveled soil patches for cultivation of different crops. Whereas soil present in synclinal depressions is carried physically by water in the form of alluvium. The alluvium soil is main source for cultivation.

     GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES OF HAZARA RANGE

Geography and climate:

Hazara is bounded on the north and east by the Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir. To the south are the Islamabad Capital Territory and the province of Punjab, whilst to the west lies the rest of the Khyber Pakhtoonkhwa.

Because it lies immediately south of the main Himalaya Range, and is exposed to moist winds from the Arabian Sea, Hazara is the wettest part of Pakistan. At Abbottabad, annual rainfall averages around 1,200mm (47 inches) but has been as high as 1,800mm (70 inches), whilst in parts of Mansehra District such as Balakot the mean annual rainfall is as high as 1,750mm (68 inches). Due to its location on the boundary between the monsoonal summer rainfall regime of East Asia and the winter-dominant Mediterranean climate of West Asia, Hazara has an unusual bimodal rainfall regime, with one peak in February or March associated with frontal southwest cloudbands and another monsoonal peak in July and August. The driest months are October to December, though in the wettest parts even these months average around 40mm (1.6 inches).

      Population:

The population of the Hazara region was estimated to be over 4.5 million in 2005. The total area of Hazara is 18013 km

      Transport:

Hazara lies close to the crossroads formed by the river Indus and the Grand Trunk Road. The Karakoram Highway begins at the town of Havelian and goes north through the division towards China via the Northern Areas.

Geomorphic Features in Hazara Area:

A braided river is one of a number of channel types and has a channel that consists of a network of small channels separated by small and often temporary islands called braid bars. We observed Dor River in Abbottabad, River Kunhar in BalaKot and River Harno on Murree Road.

Chapter

Rocks units(stratigrsphy)

          OBSERVED FORMATION IN SALT RANGE AREA

We observed the following formations in Salt Range area in our two days field work.

·         Salt range formation

·         Khewra Sandston

·         Kussak formation

·         Jutan Dolomite

·         Baghanwala formation

·         Nammal formation

·         Dandot formation

·         Tobra formation

·         Sakessar Limestone

·         Patala formation

·         Chinji formation

·         Hangu formation

·         Warcha Sandstone

Ø SALT RANGE FORMATION

Age:

The age of Salt Range formation is early Cambrian and late Precambrian and is inactive tectonically.

Name:

Salt Range formation

Type locality:

Khewra gorge eastern salt range Punjab has been designated as the type section.

1. Sahwal Marl Member

It composed of gypseferrous, igneous body called “Khewrite” or “Khewra Trap” pyroxene and oily shale.

2. Bhandar Kas Gypsum

The member is composed of massive gypsum with minor beds of dolomite and clay.

3. Billianwala Salt Member:

Dull red marl beds with some salt seem and thick gypsum bed on top. Bright red marl with irregular gypsum, dolomite beds and Khewra trap.

In Billianwala Salt member, there we observed a cavity which has water dissolved salt. This water dissolved salt was dropping from ceiling to lower part. The upper water dissolved is called Stillic Tite and the lower is called Stillic mite .Also this salt is evaporating towards ceiling.

Reported Lithology:

The upper part of the salt range formation is composed of gypsum beds, dolomite, clay, greenish & low grade oil shale; ‘Khewra trap or khewrite’ (6m thick) consisting of decomposed radiating needle of light colored mineral, probably pyroxene.

The lower part of the formation consisting of Marl, red gypseous with salt consisting of thick seams.

There are three members of Salt range formation

Fossil:

Salt Range formation contains tertiary microfossils.

Contacts:

Upper contact with Khewra sandstone normal and conforamable.

Ø KHEWRA SANDATONE

Age:

Early Cambrian.

Name:

Khewra Sandstone

Type Locality:

The type locality of the Khewra Sandstone is in Khewra Gorge near Khewra Town, Salt Range.

Reported Lithology:

The formation predominantly consist of purple brown, yellowish brown fine grained sandstone and the lower most part of the formation consists of flaggy shale thick to massive bedded ripple marks and mud cracks . The formation has upper contact with Kussak formation. Thickness at the type locality is about 150m. In the western Salt Range it is about 200m and the exposed thickness in the khisor Range is about 60m. The formation consist a few trace fossils. 

Fossil:

It contains Trace fossils and Trilobite trails.

Contacts:

Khewra sandstone has upper contact with Kussak formation and lower contact with Salt Range formation.   

Ø KUSSAK FORMATION

Age:

Mid Cambrian and early Cambrian or late early Cambrian.

Name:

Kussak formation

Type Locality:

The type locality of the formation lies near the Kussak Fort in the eastern part of the Salt Range.

Reported Lithology:

The formation is composed of greenish grey, glauconitic and micaceous sandstone and siltstone interbedded with light grey dolomite and some oolitic arenaceous dolomite; with layer of intraformational conglomerates; pink gypsum lenses at top and 5.25cm long thin lenses of fossil asphalt (gilsonite).

Ø JUTANA DOLOMITE

Age:

Jutana dolomite is of early mid Cambrian and late early Cambrian.

Name:

Jutan Dolomite

Type Locality:

The type locality of the formation lies neat the Jutana village in the eastern Salt Range Punjab.

Reported Lithology:

The upper part of the formation consist of light green to dirty white dolomite, massive; brecceated in upper part with matrix and fragments of same rocks. The lower part consist of dolomite of light green color, hard massive and partly sandy. The formation has upper contact with Baghanwala formation which is conformable and the lower contact with Kussak formation also conformable. 

Fossils:

Lingulella fuchsia, botsfordia granulate, redilchia noetlingi.

Ø BAGHANWALA FORMATION

Age:

Mid Cambrian

Name:

Baghanwala formation.

Type Locality:

The type section of the Baghanwala formation is located near the Baghanwala village in the eastern Salt Range.

Reported Lithology:

The formation is composed of red shale and clay alternating with flaggy sandstone of several color pink, grey or blue green especially in the lower half part. Ripple marks and mud cracks are common. Numerous pseudomorph cast of salt crystal are present along the bedding plane which are the diagnostic features of this formation.

Ø NAMMAL FORMATION

Age:

Early Eocene

Name:

Nammal formation

Type Locality:

The Nammal formation is exposed in the Nammal Gorge.

Reported Lithology:

The formation comprises shale, marl and limestone and their alternation. The shale is grey to olive green fossiliferous. The Limestone and Marl is light grey to bluish and argillaceous at places. In Surghar Range the lower part composed of bluish marl with subordinate interbeds of calcareous shale and limestone; the upper part is consisting of bluish limestone, with marl and shale intercalation

Fossils:

It contains forams and mollusks.

Ø DANDOT FORMATION

Age:

Dandot formation is of early Permian age.

Name:

Dandot formation

Type Locality:

The type locality of the formation is neat Dandot village, eastern Salt Range.

Reported Lithology:

The formation consists of light grey to olive green, yellowish sandstone with occasional thin pebbly and subordinate dark grey and splintery shale, fossiliferous in the basal part. The maximum thickness of the formation has been recorded in the Makrach Valley where it is about 50m in thickness.

Fossils:

Dandot formation contains discina, martiniopsois, chonetes, eurydesma, conalaria.

Ø TOBRA FORMATION

Age:

Tobra formation is of early Permian age.

Name:

Tobra formation

Type Locality:

The formation is located near Tobra village in eastern Salt Range.

The foramation comprises on three facies

Tillitic facies:

The facies exposed in the eastern Salt Range. The rock unit graded into marine sandstone containing Eurydesma and Conularia fauna

      Freshwater facies:

Freshwater facies with few or no boulders. It is an alternating facies of siltstone and shale containing spore flora. This facies is the characteristic of the eastern Salt Range

Complex facies:

A complex facies of diamictite, sandstone and boulder bed, the unit increase in thickness in western Salt Range and Khisor Range.

Reported Lithology:

The Tobra formation is true tillitic; the rock unit is composed of boulders of granite with fragments of Quartz, feldspar, magnetite, garnet, claystone, siltstone, quartzite, bituminous shale, diabase and gneiss. Some boulders are polished and scratched. According to Teichert (1967) ice sheet that formed tillitic deposits is not a part of extensive inland sheet but it was result of local glaciations. The ice sheet did not extend in the area now occupied by central and western salt range. In the central range the Tobra formation is mainly composed of freshwater facies comprising siltstone and shale. The thickness of formation at type locality is 20 meters, but different at different localities. The contact of Tobra Formation with underlying Baghanwala is unconformable while the upper contact with Dondot formation is gradational.

Fossils:

Contains Pollens and spores.

Ø SAKESSAR LIMESTONE

Age:

Early Eocene

Name:

Sakessar Limestone

Type Locality:

Sakessar Peak in the Salt Range has been designated as the type locality.

Reported Lithology:

The formation consists of predominantly limestone and matrl. The Limestone is cream to light grey in color nodular, massive and having chert in the upper part. The Marl is creamed colored to light grey and form a persistent horizon near the top. Near Daud Khel the in western Salt Range the limestone grades into white to grey and massive gypsum. In Surghar Range, the chert lenses increase in number.

Fossils:

It contains forams, mollusks and echinoids.

Ø PATALA FORMATION

Age:

Patala formation have late Paleocene age.

Name:

Patala formation

Type Locality:

The formation is exposed in Patala Nala in Salt Range Punjab.

Reported Lithology:

The formation consists of shale and marl with subordinate limestone and sandstone, with coal seams locally. In Salt Range the shale is dark greenish grey, selenite bearing, in places carbonaceous and calcareous and also contain marcasite nodules with interbeds of limestone, white to light grey and nodular and sandstone interbeds, brown and calcareous, coal seams locally. In Kohat shale is dark grey, carbonaceous at place with limestone interbeds. In Hazara shale is green, brown to buff, with nodular and limestone interbeds. In Kala Chitta light brown and grey marl with thin interbeds of limestone.

Fossils:

Patala formation contains forams, mollusks and ostracodes.

Ø CHINJI FORMATION

Age:

Chinji formation is of late Miocene

Name:

Chinji formation

Type Locality:

The Chinji Village in the Campbellpur district has been designated as the type locality of the formation.

Reported Lithology:

The formation consists of red clay and subordinate brown grey sandstone. The sandstone is fine to medium grained, occasionally gritty, cross bedded and soft. Scattered pebbles of quartzite and thin lenses of intraformational conglomerate are found at different horizons throughout the formation. The proportion of clay and sandstone is variable from place to place e.g., in Shinghar Range. The formation is mainly composed of reddish brown or reddish grey sandstone with subordinate clay interbeds.

Fossils:

It contains vertebrates like turties, lizards, aquatic birds, crocodiles etc.

Ø HANGU FORMATION

Age:

Early Paleocene.

Name:

Hangu formation

Type Locality:

A section south of Fort Lockhart (lat. 33 40ʺ N: long, 71 03ʹ E) has been designated as the type section and Dhak Pass (lat. 32 40ʹ N: long. 71 44ʹ E) in the Salt Range as the principal reference section of the formation.

Reported Lithology:

The formation consists of sandstone with grey shale intercalation in upper part in Kohat area. The sandstone is white, light grey and reddish brown, weathers dark brown, fine to coarse grained, in places conglomeratic and medium to thick bedded. In the Salt Range and Trans-Indus ranges, the formation consists of dark grey, rarely variegated sandstone, shale, carbonaceous shale and some nodular argillaceous limestone. The carbonaceous content increase locally and constitutes coal seams in part of Surghar Range (Makarwal area). A 2 to3 m thick bed of ferruginous pisolitic sandstone occur at base of the unit. In western Kala Chitta, Nizampur and Hazara the unit is mainly represented by ferruginous, oolitic or pisolitic sandstone, siltstone and clay and contains the ‘Langrial Iron Ore’.

Fossils:

It contains forams, corais, gastropods and bivalves.

Ø WARCHA SANDSTONE

Age:

Early Permian. (Assumed)

Name:

Warcha sandstone

Type Locality:

The type locality of the formation is in the Warcha Gorge in the Salt Range.

Reported Lithology:

The formation consists of medium to coarse grained sandstone, conglomerates in places and has interbeds of shale. The sandstone is purple, red, or shows lighter shade of pink. It is cross bedded. The sandstone is arkosic, the pebble of the unit are mostly granite of pink color and quartzite. The thickness of the formation is 26 t0 180 m in salt range and Khisor range and it is widely distributed in these areas. The Warcha sandstone conformably overlies the Dandot formation. The upper contact of the formation with Sardhai formation is transitional and conformable.

Fossils:

In Warcha Sandstone some plant remains can be found.

              OBSERVED FORMATION IN HAZARA RANGE

We observed the following formation in Hazara Range in four days field work

·         Chlorite Mica Schist

·         Mansehra Granite

·         Hazara formation

·         Susl Gali Granet

·         Smana Suk Formation

·         Kawaghar Formation

·         Hangu Formation

·         Sarban Dolomite

·         Abbbottabad formation

Ø CHLORITE MICA SCHIST

Chlorite Mica schist is greenish grey in color due to chlorite. Mica is also present in it and it is metamorphic rocks. Mullion structures and cleavage is its identification. Kink folds are also observed in it at Mansehra road.

Ø MANSEHRA GRANIT

Its age is Pre-Cambrian. There is rock mostly is granite. With granite there are plagioclases which have crystal phenol structure. The texture of Mansehra granite is perphoratic. In Mansehra Granite Mica is found which have two types. First one is Biotite Mica which has Black Shiny color. The is muscovite which have white shiny color. It is plutonic rock where Dolorite Dike intrusion is also present in it. Dolerite is Hypabasal rock. The intrusion of quartzite and gneiss is also present. Mansehra Granite is weathering highly and changing to clay mineral due to which terraces developed. The feldspar of Mansehra granite change to clay mineral in one cycle while Quartz due to high resistance will change in many cycles.

Ø HAZARA FORMATION

Age:

Hazara formation is of is of pre-Cambrian age.

Name:

Hazara formation

Type Locality:

The type locality of Hazara formation is Hazara ranges.

       Reported Lithology

The formation consists of shale, phyllitic shale with minor occurrence of          limestone and graphite layers. Shale and phyllitic are green and black but are rusty brown and dark green on weathered surface. Some thick bedded  fine to medium grained sandstone is also present.

Ø SAMANA SUK FORMATION

Age:

Middle Jurassic

Name:

Samana Suk formation

Type Locality:

NE of Shinawri (Samana Ranges, K.P.K)

Reported Lithology:

In Hazara, Kala Chitta and eastern Kohat it is thin to thick bedded and included some dolomite and ferruginous, sandy, oolitic beds. In Salt Range & Trans-Indus ranges, the limestone it is light in color, mid to thin bedded and marly, shelly in lower part. In Kohat pass, dolomite and dolomitic limestone with chert from the upper part.

Fossils:

It consists of Brachiopods, bivalves, correlative with Chiltan limestone and Gastropods and ammonites.

Ø KAWAGARH FORMATION

Age:

Its age is Cretaceous

Type Locality:

Kawagarh hills (N. of Kala Chitta) Cambellpur district.

Reported Lithology:

The Nara sandstone member in the upper part is grey, brownish grey to dark grey, thick bedded, calcareous sandstone with some limestone interbeds. In northern hazara Nara member was not developed and Kawagarh formation consists of grey, olive grey, light grey sublithlogic limestone with subordinate marl and Calcareous shale. In Hazara the thickness of the formation varies from 45 m to 200 m, south to middle area. The formation has disconformable contact with overlying Hungu formation of Paleocene age and Underlying Lumshiwal formation of mainly Early Cretaceous.

Ø HANGU FORMATION

Age:

Early Paleocene

Name:

Hangu formation

Type Locality:

Fort Lokhart, Samanr Ranges,Kohat K.P.K

Reported Litholgy:

Its Lithology consist of Shales, Friable Sandstone, Coal seams, Residual deposits and Laterites. Laterites are the formed when carbonate exposed then limestone weather in humid condition, then iron rich product form. This iron rich product is called Laterites.

Ø ABBOTTABAD FORMATION

Age:

Early Cambrian.

Name:

Abbottabad formation.

Type Locality:

Sirban Hills Abbottabad K.P.K

      Reported Lithology:

Consisting mainly of dolomite, quartzite and phyllite, with many lithologic changes and interfingering facies from place to place. In Tarbela the main constituents of the of the formation are thin phyllite and conglomerate at the base followed by quartzite, dolomite and again quartzite which caps the formation. In Muzafarabad basal conglomerate is overlain by quartoze sandstone, followed upward by alternating dolomite and lomestone.

Chapter

Structures observed in field

The following structures have been observed in the field.

·         Cross bedding

·         Ripple marks

·         Mud cracks

·         Load casts

·         Salt pseudomorph crystals

Cross Bedding:

Cross bedding is a feature that occurs at various scales, and is observed in conglomerates and sandstones.  It reflects the transport of gravel and sand by currents that flow over the sediment surface (e.g. in a river channel).  Sand in river channels or coastal environments

Ripple Marks:

Ripple marks are produced by flowing water or wave action, analogous to cross-bedding (see above), only on a smaller scale (individual layers are at most a few cm thick)

Mud cracks:

Mud cracks are form when a water rich mud dries out on the air. You all have seen this when the mud in a puddle dries out in the day following a rainstorm. Due to stretching in all dirctions the mud crackes form a polygonal pattern. We als see several successive generation of cracks

Load Cast:

Load casts, unlike flute casts, are deformational structures, rather than erosional structures.  They occur commonly along the bases of sandstone beds that overlie mudstone or shale beds.  While they may sometimes resemble flute casts, load casts can be differentiated from flute casts by their greater irregularity of shape and the lack of any indication of paleoflow direction.  Load casts range in size, and may be associated with other deformational structures like flame structures and/or ball-and-pillow structures.  Load casts form in settings where water-saturated muddy sediments are buried rapidly by coarser (sandy) sediments, creating a situation where dewatering the mud cannot take place.  The weight of the overlying sand causes it to sink unevenly into the muddy substrate, creating these features.

Salt Pseudomorph Crystals:

Salt pseudomorphs crystals ar secondary minerals that have the forms of the primary mineral that they replacd. Salt pseudomorphs crystals typically form in the near surface of sediments because of  evaporation of primary salt crystal. Obviously the salt pseudomorphs crystals takes on its natural form and fills a space in the sediments that has form. Later, as the sediments gets buried further and further, different water can enter the beds containing the salt crystals. This new water expelled from often is less salty than the water that formed the salt crystals, so those crystals will start to dissolve. Often the new water is saturated with silica or carbonates and these minerals precipitates into the open space once held by the salt crystal, and since that space had the form of original salt crystal, the quartz or carbonates now has the appearance.

Chapter

Importance of geology in daily life

Geology especially economic geology play very important role in daily human being life. What is Economic Geology?  Here we give a brief discussion of Economic Geology.

Introduction

Economics of any country depend upon the natural resources present in it. In Pakistan nature has gifted abundant natural resources. Salt range and Hazara range contains abundant mineral deposits and building materials, which are used in industry as crude material. It has large deposits of Halite, Gypsum, Phosphate, Potash, Coal, Limestone, Dolomite, Silica sand, Iron ores, Petroleum, Radioactive minerals, clay sand etc.

         Halite

The main salt production comes from Billianwala member in salt range. Where several salt mines are established in the areas of Khewra, Warchha and Kalabagh. The second largest salt mine ³Khewra Salt Mine´ is present in Billianwala member of Precambrian  age of Salt range. Massive beds of Halite are embedded in red coloured marl. Salt has been  mined at Khewra since 320 BC, in an underground area of about 110 square kilometers  (42 sq mi). Khewra salt mine has estimated total of 220 million tonnes of rock salt deposits. The current production from the mine is 325,000 tons salt per annum.

The mine-head buildings have 19 stories, with 11 below ground. Only 50% salt is extracted and50% is left as pillars to keep the mountain. The salt-mine is 288 meters (940 ft) above sea level and extends around 730 meters (2,400 ft) inside the mountains from the mine-mouth. The cumulative length of all tunnels is more than 40 kilometers (25 mi).There are seven thick salt seams with a cumulative thickness of about 150 meters.

         Gypsum

Thick deposits of Gypsum are present in Bhander Kas member of Salt range Formation, through which gypsum is mined. The thickness of the Bhander kas gypsum member is more than 80.Gypsum is used primarily in the plaster-making industry.

Crude gypsum is used as a fluxing agent, fertilizer, filler in paper and textiles, and retarder in Portland cement. About three-fourths of the total production is calcined for use as plaster of paris and as building materials in plaster, cement, board products, and tiles and blocks. Gypsum plaster is a white cementing material made by partial or complete dehydration of the mineral gypsum, commonly with special retarders or hardeners added. Applied in a plastic state (with water), it sets and hardens by chemical recombination of the gypsum with water.

         Rock Phosphate

Rock phosphate is present in the upper part of Abbotabad formation if palaeozoic age. These phosphate occur with dolomite and cherty dolomite. It is also occur in Chichali formation exposed in Kohat area. Low grade phosphatic nodules are also known from Paleozoic Patala formation in eastern and central salt range.Phosphate rock is mined, beneficiated, and either solubilized to produce wet-process phosphoric acid, or smelted to produce elemental phosphorus. Phosphoric acid is reacted with phosphate rock to produce the fertilizer triple superphosphate or with anhydrous ammonia to produce the ammonium phosphate fertilizers. Elemental phosphorus is the base for furnace-grade phosphoric acid, phosphorus pentasulfide, phosphorus pentoxide, and phosphorus trichloride. Approximately 90% of phosphate rock production is used for fertilizer and animal feed supplements and the balance for industrial chemicals. For general use in the fertilizer industry, phosphate rock or its concentrates preferably have levels of 30% phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5), reasonable amounts of calcium carbonate (5%), and <4% combined iron and aluminium oxides. In addition to phosphate fertilizers for agriculture, phosphorus from rock phosphate is also used in animal feed supplements, food preservatives, anti-corrosion agents, cosmetics, fungicides, ceramics, water treatment and metallurgy

Limestone

Limestone is far most abundant mineral commodity in Pakistan contains vast reservoirs in many localities. In salt range Wargal lime stone, Lockhart limestone, Sakesar limestone, Nammal formation and Chak Jabbi limestone indicated major Limestone. More than 95% limestone is used in cement making, so this is the reason that Pakistan s many cement industries are present in Salt Range areas. Limestone is used in variety of purposes due to variation of composition. The more common uses for which these rocks are suitable include concrete and other aggregate, crushed rock for road metal and other uses, agricultural limestone, riprap, and building stone.

     

      Dolomite

Pakistan contains vast amount of dolomite. In upper Indus basin , major dolomite bearing formations are Jutana, Kingriali and Samana Suk. Dolomite is of good grade, close to theoretical value of dolomite.

The inherent differences between dolomite and calcite drive the applications for dolomite. Dolomite is chosen for many construction and building product applications due to its increased hardness and density. Asphalt and concrete applications prefer

dolomite as a filler for its higher strength and hardness. Dolomite also finds use in a

number of applications as a source of magnesium such as glass and ceramics

manufacture, as well as a sintering agent in iron ore pelletization and as a flux agent in

steel making. Farmers use dolomite for agricultural pH control. The chemical industry uses the mineral dolomite in making magnesium salts including magnesia, magnesium oxide (MgO), which is used in pharmaceuticals.

Coal

Pakistan contains large deposits of low quality coal of Tertiary age. The salt range contains major coal fields of the country. The salt range province contains two horizons, which are Makarwal Coal and Khushab-Dandot coal fields. This coal is present in Hungu formation in eastern part of the salt arrange and other in Patala formation, which is formed in all over salt range but coal of economic value is only present in central salt range area.

                                    ILLUSTRATION OF PHOTOS

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1 2 ,3 4 , 5 6 , 7 8 , 9 10 , 11 12,13 14,15 16,17 18,19 20,21 22,23 24,25 26,27 28,29 30 31,32 33,34 35,36 37,38	Sahwal Marl member Bandar kas Gypsum & Cavity in Salt Range F.m Stilic Tite & stilic Mite & Khewra Sst Kussak F.m & juttan F.m Baghanwala F.m & contact b/w Tobra & Dandot Contact b/w baghanwala and tobra formation Dandot and Nammal formation Sakessar Limestone Ripple marks and mud cracks Hodoose structures and mud cracks Load cast and normal fault in jehlum group Asymmetrical fold and flesser bedding Cross bedding and convolute coiled bedding Salt pseudomorph crystal and disconformity Kingriali fm and Lockhart limestone Talus deposit Algal limestone and hazara slates Samana suk limestone and imbricate fault Mansehra granite and Kawagarh limestone K.T boundary b/w kawagarh and hangu  and mullion structures	32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51